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Mesopotamia refers to the region now occupied by modern Iraq, eastern Syria, southeastern Turkey, and Southwest Iran.
The toponym comes from the Greek words μέσος "between" and ποταμός "river", referring to the basins of the Euphrates and the Tigris rivers and the area in between.
Comparably, the Arabic term is ما بين النهرين Ma Bayn Nahrain "between two rivers". The geographical area watered by these two rivers is often referred to as the "Cradle of Civilization", since it was here that the first literate societies developed in the late 4th millennium BC.
Hellenistic period
Mesopotamia was coined in the Hellenistic period without any definite boundaries, to refer to a broad geographical area and probably used by the Seleucids. The area became a short-lived province of the Roman Empire at the time of Trajan, with the name Provincia Mesopotamia. Scholars have suggested that the Akkadian term biritum/birit narim corresponded to a similar geographical concept and coined at the time of the Aramaicization of the region.
Greater Mesopotamia
It is however widely accepted that early Mesopotamian societies simply referred to the entire alluvium as kalam in Sumerian (lit. "land"). More recently terms like "Greater Mesopotamia" or "Syro-Mesopotamia" have been adopted to refer to wider geographies corresponding to the Near East or Middle East. The later euphemisms are Euro-centric terms attributed to the region in the midst of various 19th century Western encroachments.
History
Mesopotamian history extends from the emergence of urban societies in Southern Iraq in the 4th millennium BC to the arrival of Alexander the Great in the 4th century BC (which is seen as the hallmark of the Hellenization of the Near East, therefore supposedly marking the "end" of Mesopotamia).
A cultural continuity and spatial homogeneity for this entire historical geography ("the Great Tradition") is popularly assumed, though the assumption is problematic. Mesopotamia housed some of the world's most ancient states with highly developed social complexity.
Some time in the early fourth millennium B.C. in Mesopotamia, a critical event-the settlement of the great river valleys-took place. It was after this that writing , art, monumental architecture, and new political forms were introduced in Mesopotamia.
SUMER: At the dawn of recorded history, the lower Mesopotamian valley was occupied by the Summerians. They were an agricultural people who learned to control floods and built strong-walled towns, such as Uruk, the biblical Erech and the modern Warka, and Lagash, the modern Al-Hiba. Summerian influence, especially through language, extended widely from its base in southern Mesopotami, Eastward to Susa Iran, Northward to Assur, and Westward to Syria.
AKKAD: At about 2300 B.C. Sumer came under the domination of a great ruler, Sargon of Akkad. The Akkadian although Semitic in origin and speaking a language entirely different from that of Sumer, had assimilated Sumerian culture.
GUTI: The achievements of Akkad were brought to an end by an incursion of barbarous mountaineers, the Guti, who dominated life in central Mesopotamia for about 60 years.
NEO-SUMERIAN: At about 2100 B.C. Under the king of Ur, Gudea the Sumerians reasserted themselves.
BABYLONIA: Under the rule of its most powerful King, Hammurabi, whom was able to reestablish a centralized governmnet that ruled the whole country. Hammurabi was famous for his written laws found on the Stele of Hammurabi 1880 B.C.
ASSYRIA The ASSYRIAN DYNASTY: Under a king named Shamshi Adad, the Assyrians Dominated the North part of Mesopotamia. By About 900 B.C. the Asyrian dominated the Near East for about three centuries and extended from the Tigris to the Nile and from the Arab/Persian Gulf to Asia Minor. Sargon II Procalimed himself as King of the World, and regarded his city and palace as expresion of his grandeur, which he viewed as founded on the subission and enslavement of his enemies.
NEO-BABYLONIA The CHALDEAN DYNASTY: Babylonians rose again and a brief renewal (612-538 B.C.), the old southern Mesopotamian culture flourished, especiallay under the storied King Nebuchadnezzar, whose exploits we read about in the book of Daniel. Nebuchadnezzar made Babylon a fabulous City once again, and its famous "Hanging Gardens" on of the seven wonders of the world.
Four riverine civilizations
The region was as one of the famous four riverine civilizations where writing was first invented, along with the Nile valley in Egypt, the Indus Valley in the Indian Subcontinent and Yellow River valley in China.
Major territorial states
Mesopotamia housed historically important cities such as Uruk, Nippur, Nineveh, and Babylon as well as major territorial states such as the Akkadian kingdom, Third Dynasty of Ur, and Assyrian empire.
Leaders
Some of the important historical Mesopotamian leaders were Ur-Nammu (king of Ur), Sargon (who established the Akkadian Kingdom), Hammurabi (who established the Old Babylonian state), and Tiglath-Pileser I (who established the Assyrian Empire).
Architecture
The study of ancient Mesopotamian architecture is based on available archaeological evidence, pictorial representation of buildings and texts on building practices. Scholarly literature usually concentrates on temples, palaces, city walls and gates and other monumental buildings, but occasionally one finds works on residential architecture as well.
Archaeological surface surveys also allowed for the study of urban form in early Mesopotamian cities.
Most notably known architectural remains from early Mesopotamia are the temple complexes at Uruk from the 4th millennium BC, temples and palaces from the Early Dynastic period sites in the Diyala River valley such as Khafajah and Tell Asmar, the Third Dynasty of Ur remains at Nippur (Sanctuary of Enlil) and Ur (Sanctuary of Nanna), Middle Bronze Age remains at Syrian-Turkish sites of Ebla, Mari, Alalakh, Aleppo and Kultepe, Late Bronze Age palaces at Bogazkoy (Hattusha), Ugarit, Ashur and Nuzi, Iron Age palaces and temples at Assyrian (Kalhu/Nimrud, Khorsabad, Nineveh), Babylonian (Babylon), Urartian (Tushpa/Van Kalesi, Cavustepe, Ayanis, Armavir, Erebuni, Bastam) and Neo-Hittite sites (Karkamis, Tell Halaf, Karatepe).
Houses are mostly known from Old Babylonian remains at Nippur and Ur. Among the textual sources on building construction and associated rituals, Gudea's cylinders from the late 3rd millennium are notable, as well as the Assyrian and Babylonian royal inscriptions from the Iron Age.
Art Periods
Prehistoric Period
- Mesopotamian art of the period, from 7000 to 3500 B.C., before writing, was fully developed. Archaeological sites are Hassuna, Samarra and Tell Halaf.
- HMCO Mosaic: The Mesopotamians - The First Civilization
Early Dynastic Period - Old Sumerian (From 3000 to 2340 B.C.)
- The Sumerians developed pottery and jewellery. A new type of building was introduced - city-states centers of this epoch are Ur, Umma, Lagash, Kish, and Eshnunna. One of the most remarkable artifacts remaining from this period is known as The Standard of Ur.
Akkadian Period
- In the late 24th century B.C. under Sargon I, Akkadians united the whole of Mesopotamia. Little Akkadian art remains.Significant Akkadian innovations were those of the seal cutters. The Akkadian cities are Sippar, Assur, Eshnuna, Tell Brak, and Akkad.
Neo-Sumerian Period (From 2112 to 2004 B.C.)
- The Akkadian Empire fell to the nomadic Guti, who did not centralize their power. This enabled the Sumerian cities of Uruk, Ur, and Lagash to reestablish their power.
Old Babylonian Period
- The land was once more united by Semitic rulers (about 2000-1600 B.C.). The most important ruler was Hammurabi of Babylon. The most original art of the Babylonian period came from Mari.
Kassite and Elamite Dynasties
- The Kassites, a people of non-Mesopotamian origin, were present in Babylon shortly after Hammurabi's death. They adapted themselves to their environment and its art.
Assyrian Empire (From 1700 B.C. to 100 B.C.)
- It shows different from established Babylonian stylistic traditions both in religious subjects and secular themes. They built ziggurats for temples.
- The technique of polychromed glazing of bricks was used. The Neo-Assyrian period, 1000-612 B.C. is a time of great builders. Kings adorned palaces with magnificent reliefs.
- Gypsum alabaster, was more easily carved than the hard stones used by the Sumerians and Akkadians.
- Royal chronicles in battle and in the hunt were recounted in horizontal bands with cuneiform texts. At times mythological figures are portrayed. Sculptors were at their best in depicting hunting scenes.
- The art of the late Assyrian seal cutter is a combination of realism and mythology.
Neo-Babylonian Period (626-539 B.C.)
- The Babylonians defeated the Assyrians in 612 B.C. and sacked Nimrud and Nineveh. They did not establish a new style or iconography. Neo-Babylonian creativity manifested itself architecturally at Babylon, the capital.
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